In the aftermath of the surrender of Japan and the proclamation of Indonesian independence in August 1945, nationalist-aligned militias began to form in the countryside around Jakarta in the forming power vacuum, and these militias often effectively controlled the areas they operated in. Two of these groups were the Hizbullah and the Barisan Banteng Hitam (Black Bull Front). Despite ragtag leadership (often led by colonial-era local bandits) and mutual suspicion, these groups generally cooperated to some extent to resist Allied forces returning to Indonesia.[1][2]
Allied forces, primarily British, had begun arriving in Jakarta in September 1945, and initially enjoyed a good working relationship with Indonesian Republican leaders who did not consider the British forces a threat to Indonesian independence.[3] However, the situation quickly deteriorated as British forces began to clash with local youths and militias in Jakarta, and worsened even further as the Dutch colonial army KNIL was reactivated.[4] By 10 November, British forces in Surabaya had been drawn into an open battle with Indonesian nationalists.[5] To reduce tensions with the British, Indonesian Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir ordered the Republican government’s People’s Security Army (TKR) and nationalist militia to withdraw from Jakarta proper on 19 November.
